355 


ORCHARD    PRACTICE 


HUNTLEY 


906 


or  c, 


Main  Lib.  AURIC,  DEPT, 


A  BULLETIN 


ORCHARD  PRACTICE 


JOMPIL 


F,  A.  HUNTLEY 
State  Commissioner  of  Horticulture 


TACOMA,  WASHINGTON, 
March,  1906. 


OLTMPIA,  WASH, 
1  .  GORHAM,  PUBLIC  PRINTER. 

1906. 


A  BULLETIN 


ON 


ORCHARD  PRACTICE 


COMPILED   BY 


F.  A.  HUNTLEY 
State  Commissioner  of  Horticulture 


TACOMA,  WASHINGTON, 
March,  J906. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH. 

C.  W.  GORHAM,  PUBLIC  PRINTER. 

1906. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS* 


This  bulletin  is  not  intended  to  appear  as  an 
exhaustive  treatise  on  the  subjects  presented,  but  its 
aim  is  to  serve  as  a  brief  guide  for  those  who  are  in 
need  of  such  information. 

Professors  W.  H.  Lawrence  and  A.  L.  Melander  of 
the  State  College  have  very  kindly  furnished  the 
articles  for  this  publication,  which  are  credited  to 
them,  and  what  they  have  to  say  is  fresh  and  up  to 

date. 

Main  Lib. 

AGR1C,  DEPT. 


A  BULLETIN  ON  ORCHARD  PRACTICE. 


PRUNING    ORCHARD    TREES. 
BY  F.  A.   HUNTLEY. 

Pruning  is  indispensable  to  the  profitable  cultivation  and 
training  of  fruit  trees  and  plants.  Nature  prunes  and  trains 
in  a  crude  fashion  but  does  not  cultivate.  Cultivation  breaks 
into  the  natural  habits  of  plants,  intensifies  development,  and 
causes  a  demand  for  more  intensive  processes.  Natural  con- 
ditions and  artificial  methods  are  wholly  different  and  op- 
posed in  their  application.  Take  fruit  trees  or  plants  of  any 
kind,  which  have  been  established  in  variety  form  by  methods 
of  propagation  and  cultivation,  and  subject  them  to  natural 
conditions,  namelv  that  of  neglect,  and  they  will  usually  revert 
to  a  lower  constitutional  vigor  than  their  immediate  ancestry. 
To  maintain  high  standards  in  cultivated  plants  it  is,  there- 
fore, necessary  to  fulfill  all  the  requirements  of  domestication. 

The  purpose  of  this  article  is  to  give  a  few  hints  on  the 
pruning  of  orchard  trees.  Limited  space  here  forbids  going 
at  length  into  details.  No  attempt  is  made  on  the  subjects  of 
pruning  vineyards  and  small  fruits,  as  these  are  matters  ex- 
tensive within  themselves. 

There  are  many  reasons  why  trees  and  other  plants  are 
pruned,  and  there  seems  to  be  a  general  demand  for  enlighten- 
ment upon  this  important  subject. 

Pruning  is  done  on  young  trees  to  start  an  even  balance  of 
root  and  top  at  the  time  of  transplanting.  Trees  two  years 
old  and  over,  especially,  suffer  considerable  loss  at  the  roots 
when  taken  up  for  transplanting,  and  it  is  usually  advisable 
to  reduce  the  tops  to  correspond.  A  reduced  root  system  will 
not  well  maintain  the  vigor  of  a  normally  developed  top. 

Again  it  is  advisable  to  prune  young  trees  to  establish 
shapely  form.  The  ideal  is  the  yearling  tree  to  commence 
with,  for  it  is  then  possible  to  shorten  the  single  stem  to  the 


A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice 


point  where  it  is  desired  to  form  the  head,  or  establish  a  sys- 
tem of  branching.  This  can  be  done  also  with  an  older  tree, 
and  is  usually  necessary,  as  the  commercial  kind  is  generally 
two  years  old  or  over  at  the  time  of  transplanting.  Do  not 
be  afraid  to  cut  the  young  tree  back  to  the  height  desired. 
Low  heading  of  fruit  trees  has  come  to  be  an  almost  universal 
practice  and  there  are  a  number  of  good  reasons  for  this.  Tops 
low  down  admit  of  economy  in  harvesting  the  fruit,  ease  and 
effectiveness  of  spraying,  convenience  in  pruning,  shading  the 
ground  at  the  base  of  the  tree  and  thus  conserving  moisture, 
less  exposure  to  winds,  protection  from  sun  scald;  and  if  a 
tree  is  properly  pruned  during  its  young  life  it  will  maintain 
a  more  open  habit  of  branching  throughout  its  existence  than 
a  "tassel  top"  which  is  the  natural  tendency  in  high  heading. 

"As  a  rule,  all  apple,  pear,  and  sweet  cherries  ought  to  be 
headed  not  higher  than  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches  from  the 
ground,  and  all  stone  fruits,  such  as  plum,  prune,  apricot, 
peach,  nectarine,  etc.,  may,  with  advantage,  be  headed  a  little 
lower,  say  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  from  the  ground." 

The  pruning  of  bearing  apple  orchards  is  a  subject  upon 
which,  nerhaps,  more  are  interested  than  any  other  in  the  line 
of  pruning.  It  has  for  its  objects  the  renovating  of  old  trees, 
thinning  to  facilitate  spraying  and  to  admit  light,  and  the 
removal  of  injured,  crooked  and  crossed  branches.  It  is  also 
desirable  to  maintain  symmetry  of  growth.  It  is  too  common 
a  mistake  to  neglect  pruning  for  several  seasons  and  then  to 
over-prune  at  one  time.  Pruning  is  usually  done  in  late 
winter  and  early  spring,  before  the  buds  swell,  and  is  the 
proper  time  as  a  rule.  Pruning  should  be  done  every  season, 
and  not  much  at  a  time.  Avoid  cutting  off  large  limbs  ex- 
cepting in  cases  of  evident  necessity.  The  effect  of  removing 
much  wood  growth  in  the  dormant  season  is  to  direct  the  en- 
ergy of  the  tree  to  making  new  wood  which  will  appear  as 
"water  sprouts"  and  long  succulent  branches.  Always  cut 
close  to  the  base  when  taking  off  limbs.  Do  not  leave  stubs, 
as  they  may  require  a  season  or  two  to  die  back  to  the  base 
before  the  wound  will  commence  to  heal  and  cover  the  injury. 
In  the  meantime  decay  may  set  in  and  injure  the  main  stem 
upon  which  the  cut  was  made.  After  wounds  have  remained 
exposed  long  enough,  a  few  days  after  pruning,  so  the  sur- 


A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice 


faces  may  dry,  they  should  be  covered  with  some  kind  of  dress- 
ing to  exclude  air  and  moisture  and  prevent  decay.  Wax, 
varnish,  or  paint,  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Thick  white- 
lead  paint  is  one  of  the  best  dressings,  and  is  easy  to  apply. 
Make  clean  cuts  with  a  sharp  pruning  saw,  pruning  shears, 
or  a  sharp  knife.  The  size  of  cut  to  be  made  will  determine 
the  tool  to  be  used. 

Pruning  the  tree  during  the  active  stages  of  growth  dis- 
turbs the  harmony  of  action  between  roots  and  top  and  causes 
a  check  to  the  wood  development.  In  other  words,  summer 
pruning  tends  to  dwarf  hard  wooded  plants.  Prof.  J.  A.  Bal- 
mer  makes  comparison  of  the  effects  of  winter  and  summer 
pruning  as  applicable  to  the  extreme  eastern  and  western  sec- 
tions of  this  state,  in  the  following:  "Let  us  first  observe  the 
conditions  prevailing  in  Eastern  Washington."  (Above  the 
irrigated  valleys.)  "Here  we  have  a  long,  dry  summer,  with 
a  fierce,  scorching  sun,  and  strong,  drying  winds,  with  a 
maximum  rainfall  of  probably  less  than  eighteen  inches  per 
annum,  followed  by  a  severe  winter  with  fluctuating  tempera- 
tures, and  sudden  changes.  In  portions  of  the  fruit  belt  there 
is  barely  enough  natural  moisture  in  the  ground  to  sustain 
a  tree.  Under  these  conditions  who  can  wonder  that  trees  on 
the  east  side  come  to  maturity  at  an  early  age,  and  produce 
fruit  at  a  time  in  their  lives  when  they  ought  to  be  making 
wood  growth,  and  establishing  a  strong,  healthy  frame  for 
future  usefulness.  There  is  no  question  in  my  mind,  as  to 
what  is  the  proper  method  to  adopt  in  pruning  our  fruit  trees 
on  the  east  side  of  the  mountains.  We  must  prune  in  the  win- 
ter and  prune  hard.  The  tendency  of  all  our  young  trees  is 
to  run  to  premature  fruiting.  Cherries  carrying  a  crop  of 
fruit  at  two  years  old,  and  pears  and  apples  bearing  full 
crops  at  five  and  six  years  old.  To  overcome  this  tendency  in 
our  trees  we  must  practice  a  system  of  pruning  that  is  con- 
ducive to  wood  and  leaf  growth,  and  to  discourage  all  forms 
of  summer  pruning  and  pinching." 

"Trees  on  the  west  side  of  the  mountains  should  be  treated 
a  little  differently.  In  most  sections  on  the  west  side,  and 
especially  in  the  warmer  valleys,  trees  make  an  extraordinary 
wood  growth.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find  young  prunes 
and  cherries  making  a  growth  of  six  to  ten  feet  in  a  single 


6  A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice 

season.  The  excessive  moisture  in  soil  and  atmosphere,  and 
the  mild  climate,  are  conducive  of  this  rapid  growth.  Trees 
grow  late  in  the  season,  and  there  is  some  difficulty  in  secur- 
ing thoroughly  ripened  wood.  To  cut  back  severely  in  winter 
aggravates  the  evil,  more  and  longer  wood  is  the  result.  The 
way  to  check  this  excessive  growth  is  to  resort  to  summer 
pruning  and  pinching  and  even  to  root  pruning." 

All  of  what  has  been  said  is  applicable  to  plants  in  general. 
It  may  be  well  to  add  a  little  specifically  about  certain  fruits. 

The  apple  is  generally  regarded  as  a  tree  of  greatest  per- 
manence. With  this  in  view  it  becomes  a  matter  of  importance 
to  take  into  consideration  a  long  future  development.  Low 
heading  has  been  indicated  as  a  preference.  An  even  balance 
of  top  on  all  sides  is  desirable.  About  three,  and  not  to  exceed 
four  main  branches  should  make  up  the  frame  structure.  If 
the  lowest  branch  starts  at  twenty-four  inches  above  the 
ground  line,  then  the  second  branch  should  begin  not  less  than 
six  inches  above  the  first,  and  so  on.  In  the  old  tree,  with  its 
greatlv  increased  diameter,  the  branches  will  then  seem  to  be- 
gin at  very  nearly  the  same  point.  If  the  tree  is  to  have  three 
main  branches  they  should  be  selected  to  alternate  from  about 
three  equal  sides  of  the  trunk  to  insure  symmetry  of  form  and 
correct  balance  in  the  weight  of  top.  The  after-pruning 
should  be  directed  towards  maintaining  this  balance  and  sym- 
metry throughout  the  life  of  the  tree.  A  very  little  pruning 
each  year  should  suffice  thereafter. 

The  pear  tree  requires  about  the  same  treatment  as  the 
apple,  with  perhaps  a  little  more  freedom  in  branching  as  in 
the  case  of  some  varieties  of  erect  habit.  By  some  growers 
it  is  considered  advisable  to  shorten  each  of  the  main  branches 
to  about  one-third  its  length  after  the  first  season's  growth, 
and  continue  this  shortening  process  until  the  tree  comes  in 
bearing.  A  young  pear  tree  is  inclined  to  produce  a  great 
many  fruit  spurs  along  the  main  branches.  These  should  be 
kept  rubbed  off.  If  the  trees  are  of  great  vigor  it  should  be 
done  in  the  summer  but  if  growth  is  only  moderate  the  winter 
is  the  best  time.  The  main  object  in  this  is  to  insure  smooth, 
clean  branches,  which  is  a  protection  from  disease.  It  has 
been  fully  demonstrated  that  pear  blight  gains  entrance  to  a 
tree  through  the  blossoms  by  the  visits  of  insects  from  in- 


A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice 


fested  trees.  If  flowers  appear  only  on  the  smaller  growths 
the  diseased  limbs  can  be  cut  out  with  little  damaging  results. 

The  peach  tree  is  a  rapid  and  vigorous  grower.  The  fruit 
is  always  borne  on  wood  grown  the  previous  season.  Fruit 
spurs  are  not  formed  as  in  the  case  of  the  apple  and  pear. 
One-year-old  trees  are  the  most  desirable  for  planting.  Most 
growers  prefer  heading  the  trees  only  a  little  above  the  ground 
line,  with  three  or  four  main  branches.  The  annual  growths 
are  usually  very  long,  and  until  the  tree  comes  into  full 
bearing  it  is  best  to  practice  shortening  back  considerably  each 
annual  growth  earlv  in  the  spring  or  late  winter.  In  fact 
the  heading  back  process  should  always  continue,  to  insure 
compact,  shapely  trees  and  a  uniform  distribution  of  fruit. 
Systematic  annual  pruning  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  the 
practice  by  many  of  neglecting  to  prune  for  a  number  of  seas- 
ons and  after  a  few  years  starting  a  new  head  by  cutting  the 
top  back  to  a  mere  stump.  Such  cutting  back  seldom  produces 
satisfactory  results. 

The  cherry,  and  also  the  plum,  should  be  pruned  but  very 
little  after  a  system  of  correct  branching  has  been  started. 
Sometimes  it  happens  that  a  vigorous  side  branch  will  start 
and  grow  to  excessive  length  in  the  young  sweet  cherry,  and 
plum.  It  is  well  to  head  back  such  branches  in  the  growing 
season  to  a  proportionate  length.  Prune  also  to  avoid  the 
formation  of  sharp  crotches  which  are  apt  to  separate  in  the 
aged  tree.  Crotches  are  likely  to  form  where  two  branches 
of  equal  vigor  are  allowed  to  develop  from  the  same  point. 
If  one  of  them  is  headed  back  the  effect  will  be  a  much  stronger 
union,  because  of  the  fact  that  one  outgrows  the  other. 

Deep  cultivation  of  the  soil  in  orchards  is  in  effect  a  sys- 
tem of  root  pruning.  It  can  be  practiced  to  good  effect  among 
trees  inclined  to  heavy  wood  growth,  as  it  encourages  the  for- 
mation of  fruit  buds  instead  of  wood.  Where  the  object  is  to 
stimulate  wood  growth  cultivation  should  be  very  shallow  and 
frequent.  Clean  cultivation  is  always  desirable  whichever  re- 
sult is  sought,  that  of  wood  growth  or  fruit  production. 


A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice 


THE    CODLING    MOTH    AND    ITS    TREATMENT. 
BY  A.  L.  MELANDER. 

The  Codling  Moth  is  a  brownish  miller  about  one-half  inch 
in  length,  which  lays  eggs  on  or  near  apples.  In  a  little 
over  a  week  the  eggs  hatch  into  Codling  Worms.  In  nearly 
all  localities  two  distinct  broods  of  worms  occur  each  year. 
After  feeding  within  the  apple  for  several  weeks  the  worms 
leave  the  fruit  to  cocoon.  Most  worms  make  their  cocoons  in 
the  ground,  many  can  be  found  ben.eath  rough  bark.  The 


I 


U 


Different  Stages  of  CODLING  MOTH  — all  natural  size. 

cocoon  stage  is  completed  in  from  two  weeks  to  a  month  dur- 
ing the  summer.  Worms  leaving  apples  late  in  the  summer 
remain  in  the  cocoons  over  winter.  When  the  cocoon  stage  is 
completed  the  Codling  Worm  has  changed  to  the  Codling 
Moth,  and  is  ready  to  lay  its  eggs. 

HOW   TO    COMBAT    THE    CODLING    MOTH. 

The  only  remedy  for  the  Codling  Moth  is  spraying.  Other 
measures  are  useful  but  can  not  be  depended  on  alone.  Clean 
culture,  especially  stirring  up  the  ground  beneath  the  trees,  is 
of  great  importance  as  it  destroys  the  worms  in  their  cocoons. 
Banding  trees  with  burlap  will'  trap  40  per  cent,  of  the  worms. 


A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice  9 

Apples  should  be  thinned  so  that  no  two  touch.  Trees  should 
be  pruned  so  that  they  can  be  easily  sprayed  and  cultivated. 
A  new  orchard  should  be  set  with  trees  thirty  feet  apart  to 
allow  for  passage  for  the  spraying  outfit  in  the  future. 

SPRAYING. 

After  the  Codling  Moth  has  entered  the  apple  spraying 
does  no  good.  The  object  of  spraying  is  to  provide  a  coating 
of  poison  through  which  the  worm  will  have  to  eat  its  way. 
Many  worms  enter  where  apples  touch.  If  the  fruit  is  thinned 
so  that  no  two  apples  touch  the  worm  is  more  likely  to  get 
poisoned.  Most  of  the  early  worms  enter  apples  at  the  blos- 
som end.  In  order  to  place  poison  in  the  blossom  end  a  spray- 
ing must  be  given  just  after  the  petals  fall  and  before  the 
calyx  cup  closes.  This  will  be  several  weeks  before  the  first 
worms  are  hatching  but  must  be  given.  It  is  the  most  import- 
ant spraying  of  all.  The  other  sprayings  should  be  given  just 
as  the  first  worms  of  each  brood  are  hatching. 

HOW    TO    TIME    THE    SPRAYINGS. 

The  time  for  the  first  spraying  is  definitely  fixed.  But  there 
is  more  doubt  as  to  when  the  other  sprayings  should  be  given. 
The  best  time  for  spraying  can  be  easily  ascertained  by  the 
following  simple  method.  In  a  quart  glass  jar  place  a  num- 
ber of  cocoons  obtained  from  the  trunk  of  an  infested  tree. 
This  jar  should  have  a  cloth  cover  and  should  be  placed  in 
the  shade  in  the  orchard.  Add  ten  days  to  the  date  when  the 
moths  first  appeared  in  the  jar,  to  allow  for  the  hatching  of 
the  egg  and  the  date  for  the  second  spraying  is  obtained.  Ob- 
tain some  new  cocoons  a  month  or  so  later  and  rear  the  moths 
of  the  second  brood  in  the  same  way.  The  date  for  the  third 
spraying  is  thus  found.  A  fourth  Spraying  should  be  given 
one  month  after  the  third  in  the  warmer  localities. 

WHAT  TO   SPRAY  WITH. 

Lead  arsenate  is  giving  better  satisfaction  than  any  other 
substance.  Lead  arsenate  can  be  obtained  on  the  market  most 
economically  as  Swift's  Arsenate  of  Lead  or  as  Disparene. 
Mix  two  pounds  of  lead  arsenate  paste  with  fifty  gallons  of 
water.  Give  three  or  four  sprayings,  which  are  necessary. 
One  spraying  alone  will  do  no  good. 


10  A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice 

Lead  arsenate  sticks  well  and  shows  up  well  on  the  apple. 
An  ordinary  rain  will  not  wash  it  off.  It  can  not  scorch.  It 
has  given  such  good  results  that  it  is  the  cheapest  insecticide 
in  the  long  run. 

If  lead  arsenate  can  not  be  obtained  use  one  pound  of 
Paris  green  to  125  gallons  of  water.  Add  the  Paris  green 
to  two  pounds  (no  more)  of  freshly  slaked  lime  in  mixing. 
Keep  this  mixture  constantly  agitated  while  spraying. 

HOW  TO  SPRAY. 

Be  thorough.  One  spraying  properly  done  is  better  than 
a  dozen  incomplete  sprayings.  Every  side  of  every  apple 


CODLING  MOTH  LARVA. 

must  be  sprayed.  If  an  apple  is  only  partly  covered  it  will 
probably  become  wormy.  Use  as  much  force  as  possible;  the 
mixture  will  penetrate  hotter,  spread  better,  and  stick  better. 
The  one  object  of  the  ,$rst  spraying  is  to  get  poison  into  the 
calyx  cup.  To  do  this  it  is  necessary  to  force  the  spray 
through  the  crown  of  stamens.  Spray  downwards  into  the 
flowers  with  all  the  force  possible  until  the  flowers  are  drip- 
ping. An  angle  at  the  end  of  the  extension  rod  is  a  conveni- 
ence. The  other  sprayings  must  be  made  crosswise  and  up- 
wards, as  the  aim  is  to  coat  the  fruit  with  poison.  Use  what- 
ever nozzle  will  break  up  the  spray  into  a  mist  with  the  pres- 
sure available, — Vermorel  for  hand  pumps  and  the  Bordeaux 


A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice  ,  1 1 

type  for  power.  The  best  results  have  been  obtained  by  using 
the  power  pump  and  throwing  plenty  of  a  rather  coarse  pene- 
trating spray.  By  this  means  from  90  per  cent,  to  almost  the 
entire  crop  should  be  saved.  But  above  everything  else,  be 
thorough. 


SAN   JOSE    SCALE. 

The  San  Jose  Scale  has  become  so  generally  distributed  to 
the  fruit  sections  of  this  state  that  most  growers  of  tree 
fruits  are  familiar  with  its  destructive  effects.  It  may  be 


SAN  JOSE  SCALES  — enlarged  about  three  diameters. 

found  on  all  kinds  of  fruit  trees,  and  on  native  trees  con- 
tiguous to  the  infested  orchards,  but  is  most  noticeable  on 
apples  and  pears.  When  present  on  a  bearing  tree  it  al- 
ways attacks  the  fruit,  causing  conspicuous  red  blotches. 
Most  persons  do  not  like  to  eat  scaly  fruit.  Raw  animal  mat- 
ter has  not  come  to  be  a  coveted  relish  when  served  upon 
fresh  fruit,  or  otherwise. 

The  San  Jose  Scale  does  not  appear  in  broods  at  stated 
intervals,  as  is  the  habit  of  some  other  insects.  It  lives 
through  the  winter  on  branches  and  twigs  from  the  infant 
stage  to  that  of  full  development.  The  scales  as  observed 


12  A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice 

during  the  dormant  season  are  from  about  a  thirty-second  to 
nearly  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  are  of  a 
grayish  color,  nearly  circular  in  shape,  and  almost  flat,  with 
a  pointed,  slightly  raised  center  of  lighter  color.  They  devour 
the  vital  forces  of  a  tree  to  such  an  extent  that  it  ceases  to 
be  profitable,  and  will  finally  die  if  left  untreated. 

Beginning  with  the  first  warm  weather  in  May  the  scales 
commence  to  multiply  and  so  continue  to  increase  through  the 
season.  The  young  are  born  alive  and  become  immediately 
active  in  their  destructive  work  of  sucking  the  juices  from 
the  plant. 

It  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  control  and  even  to  eradicate 
this  pest  from  an  orchard,  by  use  of  the  sulphur-lime  spray 
properly  prepared  and  thoroughly  applied. 

The  writer  of  this  article  has  used  the  sulphur-lime  spray 
in  June  with  excellent  success  by  applying  the  standard 
formula  made  up  to  one-half  strength.  F.  A.  H. 


OYSTER-SHELL    SCALE. 

The    Oyster-Shell    Scale,    so    common    west   of   the   Cascade 
mountains,  has  a  different  life  history  from  that  of  the   San 


OYSTBB-SHEL.II  SCALES  — enlarged  about  three  diameters. 


A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice  13 


Jose  Scale.  It  winters  in  the  egg  stage,  the  eggs  being  pro- 
tected until  they  hatch  in  the  warm  spring  weather,  by  the 
shell  or  dead  covering  of  the  old  scale.  Otherwise  they  are 
similar  in  their  destructive  habits.  The  same  treatment  ap- 
plies to  both.  Mr.  E.  S.  Ridge,  Fruit  Inspector  for  Pierce 
county,  and  many  others  as  well,  testify  to  the  effectiveness 
of  the  Sulphur-Lime  Spray  for  the  Oyster-Shell  Scale,  when 
this  solution  is  made  and  used  properly.  F.  A.  H. 


APHIS     (GREEN    AND    BLACK.) 

The  aphis  which  attacks  the  foliage  of  the  apple  is  usually 
of  a  light  green  color,  and  those  found  on  the  plum  and  other 
stone  fruits  are  commonly  black.  Many  kinds  of  plants  are 
infested  with  aphides  of  varying  shades  of  green  merging  to 
black.  The  females  give  birth  to  living  young  through  the 
summer.  Near  the  close  of  the  warm  season  eggs  are  depos- 
ited on  the  twigs,  and  these  hatch  the  following  spring,  and 
so  continue  the  cycle  of  development.  Aphides  cause  injury 
to  young  trees,  nursery  stock,  and  newly  set  grafts,  princi- 
pally by  hindering  or  destroying  leaf  action. 

The  common  remedy  is  kerosene  emulsion  used  as  a  spray. 
The  remedy  I  have  found  best  by  extensive  practice  is  a  prep- 
aration of  nicotine,  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  to- 
bacco for  the  trade.  This  is  a  syrupy  liquid  put  up  and  sold 
in  one  and  five  gallon  cans,  and  extensively  used  as  a  sheep 
dip  for  ticks,  and  by  greenhouse  men  to  kill  insects  infesting 
tender  plants.  It  is  offered  to  the  trade  under  the  names, 
Sheep  Dip,  Rose  Leaf,  Black  Leaf,  Nicoticide  and  other 
trade  names.  The  cost  is  $1.00  to  $1.25  per  gallon  and  is 
diluted  with  about  75  parts  water  for  application.  A  strong 
tobacco  tea  made  from  the  refuse  of  cigar  factories  and  used 
as  a  spray  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  the  commercial  nico- 
tine products. 

A  thorough  spraying  with  sulphur-lime  solution  before  the 
foliage  starts  will  destroy  the  eggs,  thus  we  gain  another  im- 
portant advantage  in  the  use  of  this  valuable  remedy  which 
is  considered  the  standard  for  scale  insects.  F.  A.  H. 


14 


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WOOLLY  APHIS. 

This  insect  is  rarely  found  anywhere  except  on  apple  trees. 
It  is  most  common  in  the  Coast  Region,  though  in  other  sec- 
tions it  is  sometimes  quite  numerous.  The  white  cottony  sub- 
stance which  forms  a  covering  and  protection  to  the  soft- 
bodied  insects  beneath,  appears  so  conspicuous  that  its  pres- 
ence is  readily  observed.  It  attaches  itself  to  rough  places 


WOOLLY  APHIS — on  root  and  branches. 

in  the  bark,  in  openings  caused  by  wounds,  where  branches 
have  been  cut  off,  and  about  the  buds  and  fruit  spurs  ori 
small  branches.  It  impairs  the  vitality  of  the  tree  when  al- 
lowed to  develop  in  considerable  numbers.  The  sulphur-lime 
spray  helps  to  keep  it  in  check,  but  kerosene  emulsion  is  a 
more  effective  remedy.  Pure  kerosene  applied  with  a  paint 
brush  to  the  trunk  and  main  branches  where  it  is  found 
seems  to  result  in  no  injury  to  the  tree  and  will  kill  the  in- 
sects. It  is  a  difficult  pest  to  eradicate. 

It  is  said  that  a  "root  form"  of  woolly  aphis  attacks  the 
roots  of  apple  trees.  Some  authorities  claim  the  so-called 
root  form  is  entirely  a  different  insect,  and  it  is  named  the 


A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice 


15 


"apple-root  aphis."  While  not  as  common  as  the  woolly  aphis 
working  in  the  tops,  it  is  even  more  destructive  when  found. 
Galls  which  resemble  crown-gall  are  produced  on  the  small 
roots  by  its  attack.  A  remedy  recommended  for  this  is  to  re- 
move the  earth  from  around  the  base  of  the  tree  and  treat 
with  kerosene  emulsion.  This  pest  is  likely  to  be  introduced 
on  nursery  stock  and  serves  as  a  warning  to  the  planter  for 
close  inspection.  F.  A.  H. 


APPLE-ROOT  APHIS  — a,  Infested  Root;  6,  Larva;  c,  Perfect  Insect. 


THE    PEACH    TWIG-BORER. 

This  insect  has  come  to  be  a  serious  pest"  in  some  of  the 
peach-growing  communities  in  this  state.  The  first  attack  is 
made  upon  the  young  twigs  in  the  spring  by  the  larvae 
(worms)  boring  into  the  tips.  A  late  brood  infests  the  fruit, 
and  it  is  the  late  varieties  of  fruit  that  indicate  the  greatest 
loss  to  the  fruit-grower. 

The  adult  is  a  small  dark-gray  moth  which  reaches  matur- 
ity in  August  and  later.  The  moths  lay  their  eggs  in  the  crotches 
of  the  smaller  branches.  When  the  eggs  hatch  the  larva 
bore  into  the  bark  and  there  remain  until  the  following 
spring. 

The  Kerosene  Emulsion  Spray  will  destroy  the  worms  if 
thoroughly  applied  late  in  the  winter  or  early  spring.  In 


16 


A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice 


treating  for  this  pest  it  is  advisable  to  use  an  elbow  on  the 
end  of  the  spraying  rod,  and  direct  the  spray  downward  into 
the  crotches  with  considerable  force.  F.  A.  H. 


APPLE  SCAB. 
BY  W.  H.  LAWRENCE. 

This  is  the  most  destructive  disease  of  the  apple  that  oc- 
curs  in   the   state.      The   fungus   that   causes   the   disease   has 


SCAB  —  on  the  Apple. 

two  stages — the  winter  stage  which  lives  in  the  dead  and  de- 
caying leaves  during  the  winter  and  the  summer  stage  which 
lives  on  the  leaves  and  fruit  during  the  summer. 

The  form  in  the  dead  leaves  continues  to  grow  during  the 
winter.  Sometime  in  late  winter  or  early  spring  capsules  are 
formed  inside  the  leaves.  Each  capsule  contains  numerous 
spores.  About  the  time  the  leaves  on  the  apple  tree  begin  to 


A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice  17 

unfurl  in  spring  and  later  these  spores  escape  from  the  capsule 
and  float  about  in  the  air.  Some  of  them  lodge  on  the  leaves, 
flowers  and  fruit.  If  they  germinate  they  will  cause  the  parts 
to  become  diseased.  The  summer  stage  then  makes  its  appear- 
ance in  a  few  days  in  the  shape  of  small,  usually  nearly  cir- 
cular, dark,  'olive  green  colored  blotches.  These  blotches  are 
composed  of  numerous  short  stalks  on  the  tips  of  which  sum- 
mer spores  are  borne.  The  summer  spores  mature  at  once 
and  drop  off.  If  they  lodge  on  the  leaves  and  fruit  of  the  same 
tree  or  a  neighboring  one  thjey  will  cause  new  areas  to  become 
diseased.  Very  shortly  a  second  crop  of  summer  spores  is 
produced  by  the  fungus  in  the  new  areas  which  in  turn  drop 
off.  Some  of  them  are  carried  by  the  wind  and  other  agents 
to  the  leaves  and  fruit  and  thus  spread  the  disease  more 
widely.  Summer  spores  mature  in  such  a  short  time  and  are 
produced  in  such  abundance  that  thousands  of  scabby  spots 
appear  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  when  conditions  are  fav- 
orable. As  the  parts  mature  the  new  blotches  become  less 
frequent  and  finally  cease  to  appear.  The  greater  number  of 
them  appear  during  the  interval  of  time  between  the  unfolding 
of  the  leaves  and  a  few  days  after  the  petals  have  fallen.  The 
reason  that  the  fungus  no 'longer  produces  new  diseased  areas 
is  perhaps  due  to  the  epidermis  (skin)  of  the  leaves  becoming 
somewhat  thicker  and  firmer  and  thus  more  resistant  so  that 
the  fungus  is  unable  to  make  an  entrance. 

Since  the  fungus  that  causes  the  disease  winters  in  the 
dead  leaves  it  is  evident  that  the  destruction  of  as  many  of 
the  fallen  leaves  as  possible  will  materially  lessen  the  number 
of  winter  spores  to  be  set  free  in  the  spring.  Plowing  the  leaves 
under  in  the  autumn  is  perhaps  the  easiest  method  of  getting 
rid  of  a  greater  number  of  them.  This  will  not  altogether 
prevent  the  disease.  The  trees  must  be  sprayed  every  year. 

Several  sprays  have  been  used  in  combatting  apple  scab 
but  none  has  given  as  good  results  as  properly  prepared  Bor- 
deaux mixture.  Two  applications  applied  on  the  proper  dates 
are  sufficient  to  hold  the  disease  in  check.  The  first  application 
must  be  made  just  before  the  flower  buds  open  and  the  second 
just  after  the  petals  have  fallen. 


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A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice 


BLACKSPOT    CANKER. 
BY  W.  H.  LAWRENCE. 

Blackspot  Canker  is  a  disease  of  the  apple  tree.  In  im- 
portance it  ranks  next  to  the  apple  scab.  It  is  very  prevalent 
and  destructive  in  Western  Washington  in  localities  where  the 
rain-fall  is  considerable  during  the  latter  part  of  autumn  and 
early  winter.  The  disease  is  caused  by  a  parasitic  fungus 


CANKER  PATCHES  — on  Apple  Tree  Branches. 

The  fungus  lives  in  the  bark  for  about  a  year  and  then  dies. 
Before  it  dies  it  forms  spores  the  greater  number  of  which  are 
distributed  from  October  to  late  December  or  a  little  later. 
These  spores  are  carried  about  by  the  wind  and  some  of  them 
lodge  on  the  bark  of  apple  trees.  The  moderately  low  tem- 
perature and  plenty  of  moisture  usually  present  in  November 
and  later  are  conditions  most  suitable  for  germination.  On 
germinating  the  fungus  enters  the  bark.  Occasionally  by  the 
end  of  a  week  new  cankers  make  their  appearance,  They  are 
about  the  size  of  a  pin  head,  circular,  somewhat  sunken,  and 


A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice  19 

nearly  black.  They  increase  slowly  in  diameter  but  the  fun- 
gus penetrates  the  bark  into  the  sap  wood  beneath.  When  the 
tree  begins  to  leave  out  the  cankers  increase  rapidly  in  diam- 
eter and  are  mature  in  size  by  the  last  of -June  or  a  little  later. 
Mature  cankers  are  usually  oblong  and  vary  in  size  from  % 
of  an  inch  to  6  inches  long  by  %  of  an  inch  to  5  inches  in 
width.  Frequently  they  appear  to  be  much  larger.  As  a  rule 
these  larger  ones  are  the  result  of  two  or  more  smaller  ones 
merging  together.  The  cankered  bark  becomes  dry  and  brit- 
tle and  separates  from  the  living,  leaving  a  fissure.  It  re- 
mains on  the  tree  for  a  time  and  then  falls  out,  leaving  a 
scar. 

About  the  time  the  cankers  are  full  grown  the  epidermis 
(skin)  on  the  cankers  become  slightly  roughened  by  the  for- 
mation of  pustules  just  beneath  it.  Each  of  these  pustules 
contains  numerous  spores  which  when  distributed  will  cause 
the  new  cankers  to  appear. 

Since  the  spread  of  the  disease  is  caused  by  spores  and  the 
spores  germinate  in  November  it  follows  that  the  way  to  pre- 
vent the  disease  is  to  prevent  the  germination  of  the  spores. 
This  can  be  done  by  spraying  the  trees  with  double  strength 
Bordeaux  mixture  about  the  first  of  November  to  kill  the 
spores  on  the  bark.  Under  ordinary  weather  conditions  there 
will  be  sufficient  spray  on  the  bark 'to  kill  spores  that  may 
lodge  on  it  for  a  short  period  of  time  if  the  work  has  been 
done  properly.  To  catch  the  spores  that  are  distributed  later 
in  the  season  spray  a  second  time  with  double  strength  Bor- 
deaux mixture  making  the  application  thorough  so  that  the 
entire  tree  is  covered  with  the  spray.  The  second  spraying 
should  be  done  two  or  three  weeks  after  the  first.  In  rainy 
weather  three  or  more  sprayings  may  be  necessary  to  keep  the 
bark  protected. 


CROWN-GALL  AND  HAIRY-ROOT. 

A  report  of  investigations  by  Mr.  George  G.  Hedgcock  of 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  on  Crown-Gall  and 
Hairy-Root,  indicates  that  they  are  two  separate  and  dis- 
tinct diseases,  which  is  contrary  to  the  belief  by  some  that 
these  are  two  forms  of  the  same  disease.  Much  remains  yet 


20 


A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice 


to  be  learned  about  these  diseases  of  which  the  Gall  ic  the 
more  common.  It  is  found  on  the  roots  of  various  kinds  of 
fruit  trees  and  other  fruit-bearing  plants,  and  other  plants  as 
well. 

The  above  report  says,  galls  often  occur  in  connection  with 
hairy-root,    but    these    are    results    of   wounds    rather    than    a 


CROWN- GALL  — on  Apple  Root. 


form  of  this  disease.  *Apple  crown  gall  is  of  two  types," 
says  the  report.  "A  hard!  callous  form  is  common  on  grafted 
trees  at  the  union  of  the  root  and  scion,  and  at  any  other  point 
of  the  root  system  where  wounds  occur  in  either  the  cultivation 
or  transplanting  of  trees."  "A  second  type  is  a  soft  form  more 
common  on  seedlings,"  meaning  seedling  stock  used  for  graft- 
ing. In  my  opinion  this  "soft"  form  may  be  the  same  as  that 
designated  as  the  "callous"  form,  being  soft  by  reason  of  the 
softer  tissues  of  young  seedlings. 

All  forms  of  root  disease  should  be  rejected  and  destroyed 
both  by  the  nurserymen  and  planters. 

No  remedy  for  this  disease  has  yet  been  found,  and  much 
concerning  it  remains  to  be  studied.  F.  A.  H. 


A   Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice  21 


GUMMOSIS. 

The  gummy  exudations  often  seen  on  cherry  trees  and  other 
stone  fruits,  indicate  defective  nutrition.  It  is  the  transfor- 
mation of  large  groups  of  tissue  into  a  waste  product  with 
which  goes  the  vital  forces  of  the  tree.  Young  trees  suffer 
great  loss  of  vitality  when  so  affected  and  will  often  die.  Im- 
perfect nutrition  may  be  brought  about  by:  excessive  moist- 
ure, poor  drainage,  a  dry  subsoil,  and  a  lack  of  the  proper 
elements  of  plant  food.  Cherries  should  be  planted  on  well 
prepared  land,  and  attention  always  given  to  good  cultivation. 
Wherever  gum  appears  it  should  be  removed,  then  the  parts 
should  be  cleaned,  and  an  application  'or  two  of  orange  shellac 
varnish  made  upon  the  parts  affected.  I  wish  to  emphasize 
the  value  of  this  treatment  with  orange  shellac  varnish. 

To  prepare  the  varnish  take  pure  alcohol  and  add  enough 
orange  shellac  scales  to  make  a  liquid  of  the  density  of  thick 
cream.  Apply  the  varnish  with  a  brush.  When  dry  it  is  re- 
sistant to  moisture.  It  is  well  to  have  the  surface  dry  when 
the  application  is  made.  There  is  no  better  dressing  for 
wounds  of  all  kinds  on  plants  than  this  varnish.  It  is  better 
than  waxes  for  dressing  cut  surfaces  after  pruning. 

Orange  shellac  varnish  is  an  antiseptic.  F.  A.  H. 


PEAR  BLIGHT. 

This  disease  is  sometimes  called  "fire  blight,"  as  an  in- 
fested tree  has  the  appearance  of  being  scorched  by  fire.  The 
leaves  and  twigs  turn  black,  and  if  neglected  will  continue 
to  die  downward.  It  has  been  fully  determined  that  pear 
blip-ht  is  caused  by  a  species  of  bacteria,  exceedingly  minute 
germs,  which  gain  entrance  to  the  soft  growing  tissues  of  the 
plant  through  the  blossoms  or  wounds,  and  circulate  in  the 
sap.  Bees  will  carry  these  germs  from  an  infested  tree  to 
others  when  in  bloom.  Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  attack, 
external  remedies  cannot  be  made  to  reach  the  disease.  The 
only  remedy  is  to  cut  out  the  diseased  branches,  and  it  is  best 
to  cut  about  a  foot  below  the  apparently  diseased  portion,  as 
a  fresh  attack  does  not  always  have  a  surface  indication.  The 


22  A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice 

knife  or  whatever  pruning  instrument  is  used  should  be 
dipped  in  a  rather  strong  solution  of  carbolic  acid  after  each 
cut  is  made  to  avoid  spreading  the  germs  by  contact. 

Growers  should  use  extraordinary  care  to  prevent  the  in- 
troduction of  pear  blight  to  their  localities,  for  sooner  or 
later  they  are  sure  to  experience  considerable  loss  if  it  is  allowed 
to  spread.  F.  A.  H. 


BORDEAUX   MIXTURE   AND   ITS   PREPARATION. 
BY  W.  H.  LAWRENCE. 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  composed  of  a  number  of  compounds 
formed  by  pouring  together  solutions  of  bluestone  and  the 
milk  of  lime.  The  chemical  changes  taking  place  are  very 
delicate,  and  in  order  that  these  may  take  place  correctly  great 
care  must  be  exercised  in  mixing.  The  method  of  mixing  has 
not  only  an  important  bearing  on  the  chemical,  but  also  on  the 
physical,  nature  of  the  mixture.  The  most  valuable  of  the 
compounds,  and  one  which  is  easily  modified  in  the  mixing,  is 
a  bluish,  gelatinous  r>recipitate  having  about  the  same  specific 
gravity  as  the  fluid  in  which  it  is  suspended.  In  mixing  the 
Bordeaux  by  the  different  methods  used  by  the  orchardists  the 
following  gave  the  best  results,  and  is  the  only  one  recom- 
mended : 

Sulphate  of  copper   (blustone) 6  pounds 

Quick-lime  4  pounds 

Water    50  gallons 

To  prepare  50  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture,  weigh  out  6 
Ibs.  of  bluestone  and  place  it  in  a  sack;  suspend  the  sack 
from  a  stick  laid  across  the  top  of  a  barrel,  so  that  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sack  hangs  clear  of  the  bottom  of  the  barrel.  Pour 
in  enough  water  to  cover  the  bluestone.  As  soon  as  all  the 
bluestone  has  dissolved  take  out  the  sack  and  add  enough 
more  water  to  make  25  gallons.  Bluestone  is  readily  dissolved 
in  hot  water  and  the  use  of  this  will  facilitate  rapid  prepara- 
tion when  work  is  rushing.  Slake  4  Ibs.  of  good  quick-lime  in 
a  barrel,  taking  care  to  do  it  in  such  manner  that  when  the 
lime  is  all  slaked  the  mass  will  be  a  smooth  paste,  free  from 
small  particles  of  unslaked  or  burned  lime.  In  order  to  get 


A   Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice  23 

the  best  results  great  care  must  be  taken.  After  placing  the 
lime  in  the  barrel,  add  enough  water  to  wet  it  thoroughly,  and 
when  the  lime  begins  to  dry  and  crumble  add  more  water,  be- 
ing careful  not  to  add  enough  to  chill  it.  By  pouring  on  a 
sufficient  amount  of  water  to  keep  the  lime  from  burning  a 
smooth  paste  is  formed,  free  from  grit  and  small  lumps,  pro- 
vided a  good  quality  of  lime  has  been  used.  Having  slaked  the 
lime,  add  enough  water  to  bring  the  mass  up  to  25  gallons. 
Stir  the  lime  thoroughly  through  the  water  and  it  is  tjien 
ready  for  mixing  with  the  blustone  solution.  Two  men  are 
required  to  do  this  mixing  properly.  The  solutions  of  lime 
and  bluestone  should  be  poured  together  slowly,  and  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  solutions  will  mix  in  falling.  When  mixed, 
stir  thoroughly,  using  a  wide,  wooden  paddle.  After  strain- 
ing, the  mixture  is  ready  for  use. 

There  is  some  danger  of  not  having  sufficient  lime  to  unite 
chemicallv  with  all  the  bluestone — it  is  best  to  test  the  mix- 
ture to  see  if  sufficient  lime  has  been  used.  Fill  a  saucer  with 
the  solution  and  add  to  it  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  ferro- 
cyanide  of  potash  (one  ounce  to  a  half  pint  of  water).  If 
a  brown  color  appears,  add  more  lime  paste  to  the  mixture, 
stir  in  thoroughly  and  test  a  second  time.  Add  lime  until 
the  brown  color  does  not  appear  when  test  is  made. 


SULPHUR   LIME    FORMULA. 

Lime   1  pound 

Sulphur   1  pound 

Water    3   or  4  gallons 

First  slake  the  lime,  using  only  enough  water  to  keep  it 
moist  so  it  will  all  dissolve  and  not  burn.  Reduce  to  a  thick 
paste,  then  add  enough  water  to  make  a  thin  liquid.  Put  in 
the  sulphur,  stir  it  thoroughly  before  cooking  and  occasion- 
ally while  cooking.  If  the  cooking  vat  is  large  enough  all  the 
water  can  be  added  at  first,  but  if  not  it  can  be  put  in  later. 
To  boil  constantly  for  one  hour  is  enough,  as  it  is  claimed 
it  can  be  cooked  too  long.  When  the  sulphur  is  all  dissolved 
the  liquid  will  be  of  an  amber  color.  It  should  be  poured  into 


24  A  Bulletin  on  Orchard  Practice 

the   spraying  tank  through   a   strainer  to   remove   the   residue 
that  would  clog  the  nozzle. 

It  is  a  common  mistake  to  use  too  much  lime  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  sulphur-lime  solution.  Too  much  lime  de- 
stroys the  caustic  properties  of  the  sulphur  and  renders  the 
spray  less  effective.  It  is  best  to  use  this  preparation  while 
fresh,  or  nearly  so,  and  according  to  the  above  formula. 

F.  A.  H. 


KEROSENE   EMULSION. 

Kerosene    2  gallons 

Whale-oil  Soap   (or  1  qt.  soft  soap)  ...      %  pound 
Water    1  gallon 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water  by  boiling,  and  pour  this 
boiling  hot  into  the  kerosene,  away  from  the  fire.  The  mix- 
ture is  then  to  be  agitated  violently,  preferably  by  pumping 
it  back  on  itself  with  a  force  pump.  After  a  few  minutes  the 
mixture  becomes  creamy  in  consistency.  If  well  made,  the 
emulsion  will  stand  for  a  long  time  without  free  oil  rising  to 
the  surface.  Unless  otherwise  stated,  use  1  gallon  of  the 
emulsion  to  15  to  20  gallons  of  water  in  spraying. 


PARIS    GREEN. 

Paris  Green    1  pound 

Good  Lime    1  pound 

Water    125  gallons 

Slake  the  lime  in  a  little  water  and  then  mix  in  the  Paris 
green  to  form  a  thin  paste.  Strain  the  paste  into  the  water 
so  as  to  remove  all  lumps. 

See  article  on  the  Codling  Moth  for  Arsenate  of  Lead 
formula,  the  most  modern  of  the  poisonous  sprays. 


YR 
ID 


320942 


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